The novel takes place over five months, November to March. Sal was resubmitted for classification in Australia in 2008, only to be rejected once again. Four ageing brothel madams are appointed as storytellers for each of the four months, and their brief is to weave a 150 passions or perversions into the story of their lives. [73], The film is the subject of the documentary Sal: Fade to Black (2001) written by Mark Kermode and directed by Nigel Algar. Premiering at the Paris Film Festival on 23 November 1975, the film had a brief theatrical run in Italy before being banned in January 1976, and was released in the United States the following year on 3 October 1977. He was a notorious libertine even by the standards of his age. Reading it is, thankfully perhaps, a unique experience. "Sade's masterpiece was The 120 Days of Sodom, which has just been published as a Penguin Classic for the first time the great merit of this edition is the thoroughly excellent translation by [Will] McMorran and [Thomas] Wynn.It has none of the phony archaism of earlier English translations. Movie Synopsis: Four corrupted fascist libertines round up 9 teenage boys and girls and subject them to 120 days of sadistic physical, mental and sexual torture. Signora Maggi relates her troubled childhood and her coprophilia. But the vast majority are simply too obscene and too violent to be quoted, as one nameless victim after another is subjected to increasingly elaborate and frenzied torments. Gilles Deleuze considers The 120 Days along with the rest of Sade's corpus in conjunction with Leopold von Sacher-Masoch: The work of Sade and Masoch cannot be regarded as pornography; it merits the more exalted title of 'pornology' because its erotic language cannot be reduced to the elementary functions of ordering and describing.[16]. Italian filmmaker Giuseppe Bertolucci released the documentary Pasolini prossimo nostro (2006) based on an interview with Pasolini done on the set of Sal in 1975. "[44] The majority opinion of the board stated that the inclusion of additional material on the DVD "facilitates wider consideration of the context of the film which results in the impact being no more than high. Laura Betti was also going to play Signora Vaccari, but also because of legal problems and prior commitments to Novecento declined the role, though she doubled the voice of Hlne Surgre in post-production. Camille Paglia considers Sade's work a "satirical response to Jean-Jacques Rousseau" in particular, and the Enlightenment concept of man's innate goodness in general. The 120 Days of Sodom by Marquis de Sade relates the story of four wealthy men who enslave 24 mostly teenaged victims and sexually torture them while listening to stories told by old prostitutes. The group kidnap 18. 4. After that, the remaining three parts are written as a draft, in note form, with de Sade's notes to himself still present in most translations. History has been destroyed, and thus Pasolini is trying to re-introduce it in the film. The exceptions are Maurizio Valaguzza (Bruno), Bruno Musso (Carlo Porro), Lamberto Book (Lamberto Gobbi), Gaspare di Jenno (Rino), Marco Lucantoni (Ferruccio Tonna), Faridah Malik (Fatimah), Olga Andreis (Eva), and Dorit Henke (Doris). Description: Nazi-Fascist Northern Italy, 1943-44. The Marquis de Sade, born Donatien Alphonse Franois in 1740, is one of the most famous and notorious figures in French history.The man whose name coined sadism is best known for his violent and blasphemous sexual exploits, which he recorded in his books and plays. . It is no coincidence that they are authority figures in terms of their occupations. [34][35] Worldwide distribution for the film was supplied by United Artists. In a lost or deleted scene, he appears killed by hanging. For those not in the know, the movie centres on four rich and corrupt Italian libertines in the time of the Republic of Sal, which marked the final years of Fascism in Italy. When a British publisher, Arrow Books, finally tested the ban by reprinting Sades major novels in the late 1980s and early 90s, Ann Winterton MP led calls for the DPP to act, condemning Juliette as filth of a particularly ugly and dangerous kind. A loud scream is then heard and he reemerges with blood on his robes and missing his beard. The scroll, which started its life in prison, is thus under lock and key once again, waiting for the courts to decide its future. Libri); Simone de Beauvoir: 'Faut-il brler Sade' (Editions Gaimard); French actress Hlne Surgre (Vaccari) had her dialogue dubbed by Laura Betti. [6], In 2010, the Toronto International Film Festival placed it at no. He held that the permissiveness of the "anarchy of power" was more tyrannical than repression. Instead it is like a window, allowing us to have as clear of view as possible of Sade's mind . From the door of a castle emerges the Duc de Blangis, who is supposed to look like Christ. [1] In 2016, a contemporary English translation of the novel was published as a Penguin Classic.[5]. Language links are at the top of the page across from the title. In an Australian first, World Movies will screen 'Salo or the 120 Days of Sodom' The infamous allegory of authoritarian abuse will screen as part of month-long season of boundary-pushing films. Rinaldo Missaglia Like the Duke is strongly built. The President leaves to masturbate. And the assistant director had to go and give him a hug. Grard Lhritier, president and founder of Aristophil, a company specializing in rare manuscripts, bought the scroll for 7 million, and in 2014 put it on display at his Muse des Lettres et Manuscrits (Museum of Letters and Manuscripts) in Paris. Switzerland had not yet signed the UNESCO convention for restitution of stolen cultural objects, so de Noailles had to take the case through the Swiss courts. The fear that novels used to inspire has shifted instead to more recent and visual forms of fiction and fantasy such as video games, horror movies, and internet pornography. As a National Treasure, French law stipulates that it must be kept in France for at least 30 months, which would give the government time to raise funds to purchase it. Graziella Aniceto Finds her time at the Palace unbearable and is calmed by Eva, whom she betrays. Being short of writing materials and fearing confiscation, he wrote it in tiny writing on a continuous roll of paper, made up of individual small pieces of paper smuggled into the prison and glued together. I admit that i was really shocked but also thought- provoked. 38 120 Days Of Sodom Photos and Premium High Res Pictures - Getty Images Images Editorial Video Editorial FILTERS CREATIVE EDITORIAL VIDEO 38 120 Days Of Sodom Premium High Res Photos Browse 38 120 days of sodom photos and images available, or start a new search to explore more photos and images. Original reporting and incisive analysis, direct from the Guardian every morning, Klaus Kinski as the Marquis de Sade, in Jesus Francos 1969 film of, n 3 July 1789, in the middle of the night, the. [60], Upon the film's United States release, Vincent Canby of The New York Times wrote, "Salo is, I think, a perfect example of the kind of material that, theoretically, anyway, can be acceptable on paper but becomes so repugnant when visualized on the screen that it further dehumanizes the human spirit, which is supposed to be the artist's concern. There are therefore a number of recurring figures, such as a man who, in the early tales, enjoys pricking women's breasts with pins and, at his reappearance in the tales in the 'murderous passions' category, delights in killing women by raping them atop a bed of nails. It did not seem to matter that the copy of Justine that Brady owned had only appeared in print after he had committed all but one of his murders. But what is most shocking is that it is the Sadean libertarianism and the permissivness of that class that Pasolini finds most disturbing. The film also contains frequent references to and several discussions of Friedrich Nietzsche's 1887 book On the Genealogy of Morality, Ezra Pound's poem The Cantos, and Marcel Proust's novel sequence In Search of Lost Time. This page was last edited on 17 April 2023, at 11:21. 1975 Italian horror film by Pier Paolo Pasolini, Original Italian theatrical release poster. Toward the end, the remaining victims are called out to determine which of them will be punished. And finally, its ultimately a film about misinterpretation. Renata Moar A God-fearing and especially wide-eyed innocent. Careful what your doing and find private tracker torrent sites. 47 on its list of "The Essential 100 films". George Steiner alluded to the high probability that Bradys reading of Justine was a significant factor in the case. Pasolini's writing collaborator Sergio Citti had originally been attached to direct the intended adaptation of the Marquis de Sade's The 120 Days of Sodom. [36] In the United States, however, the film was given a limited release via Zebra Releasing Corporation on 3 October 1977. [4] The madams relate stories of their most memorable clients, whose crimes and tortures inspire the libertines to likewise and increasingly abuse and torture their victims to their eventual deaths. The documentary also included photographs taken on the set of the film. It was Pasolini's final film, being released three weeks after his murder . The notorious final film from Pier Paolo Pasolini, Sal, or The 120 Days of Sodom has been called nauseating, shocking, depraved, pornographic . 34 n 2 in La minor. The film's performances by its teenage victims is the subject of Reunion; Sal[75] (1998), an art installation by British artist, Adam Chodzko. [1] Sal, or the 120 Days of Sodom 1976 hdWATCH NOW! The shooting, carried out mainly in the 16th-century Villa Gonzaga-Zani in Villimpenta in the spring of 1975, was difficult and involved scenes of homophilia, coprophagia and sadomasochism. Pamela Hansford Johnson fretted about the threat posed by the rise of a semi-literate reading public: There are some books that are not fit for all people and some people who are not fit for all books.. During this, the Magistrate engages with the Duke in three-way intercourse. [64] In 2011, The Criterion Collection released a newly restored version on Blu-ray and DVD in conjunction with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer as a two-disc release with multiple interviews collected on the accompanying second disc. [53] David Cross and Gaspar No named it one of their favorite films. Ezio Manni remembers during filming: "The same with Franco Merli, the guy chosen for having the most beautiful butt. See production, box office & company info, Histoire(s) du cinma: Une histoire seule. The men angrily order the children to laugh, but they are too grief-stricken to do so. But all this came to a halt with the Moors murders trial of 1966, and with the revelation that Ian Brady had owned a paperback Corgi edition of Sades Justine. Sade believed the work was destroyed when the Bastille was stormed and looted on 14 July 1789, at the beginning of the French Revolution. [1] It was not until the latter half of the 20th century that it became more widely available in countries such as the United Kingdom, the United States and France. The 120 Days tells the tale of four libertines a duke, a bishop, a judge and a banker who lock themselves away in a castle in the Black Forest with an entourage that includes two harems of teenage boys and girls specially abducted for the occasion. recommended Sal, or the 120 Days of Sodom 1976 NR Advertisement Hide ads with VIP Released May 19, 1976 + 48 more Runtime 1h 57m Director Pier Paolo Pasolini Writers Pupi Avati + 3 more Country France Language Italian Studios Les Productions Artistes Associs + 1 more Genres Drama, War The final vision of a controversial filmmaker. It is hard to imagine a work of fiction prompting calls for prosecution in Britain today. A victim of the bullying of the collaborationists and the studs. The confluence of thematic content in the filmranging from the political and socio-historical, to psychological and sexualhas led to much critical discussion. Earlier that day he had been caught shouting to the crowd gathered outside the prison walls that the inmates throats were being cut. Sal o le 120 giornate di Sodoma 1975 . Faridah Malik as Fatimah; a common victim of both the Duke's sexism and the Magistrate's bullying. [6] It was first published in 1904[6] by the Berlin psychiatrist and sexologist Iwan Bloch (who used a pseudonym, "Dr. Eugen Dhren", to avoid controversy). They are then taken outside and raped, tortured and murdered through methods such as branding, hanging, scalping, burning and having their tongues and eyes cut out, as each libertine takes his turn to watch as a voyeur. During a search for the victim with the most beautiful buttocks, Franco is picked and promised death in the future. During this, she begs God for death and the Duke punishes her by defecating on the floor and forcing her to eat his feces with a spoon. 2:52. sajjad.-sali.-or.-the.-120.-days.-of.-sodom.-1975.720p.-blu-ray.x-264 Scanner Internet Archive HTML5 Uploader 1.6.4. plus-circle Add Review. He was arrested in February 1777 and remained in prison for the next 13 years. Sergio Fascetti, Dorit Henke, Bruno Musso, and Uberto Paolo Quintavalle in Sal, or the 120 Days of Sodom (1975) [61] In 2011, David Haglund of Slate surveyed five film critics and three of them said that it was required viewing for any serious critic or cinephile. 120 days of sodom 1975. All of her orifices stink. Consequently, he glorifies as well as vilifies the four main protagonists, alternately declaring them freethinking heroes and debased villains, often in the same passage. World Most Famous Comedy Videos. In a lost or deleted scene, he appears sit to a low chair and then shot. The controversy surrounding the production dissuaded the actors playing the Masters to return to loop their lines, so they were all re-dubbed by other (uncredited) actors. Sal, or the 120 Days of Sodom (The Criterion Collection) [Blu-ray] Paolo Bonacelli (Actor), Giorgio Cataldi (Actor), Pier Paolo Pasolini (Director) Rated: NR Format: Blu-ray 633 ratings -18% $3286 List Price: $39.95 FREE Returns Blu-ray $32.86 DVD $27.23 Blu-ray October 4, 2011 The Criterion Collection 1 $32.86 $28.95 $28.00 Tracked by your friendly neighborhood NSA to stop pirating. Storyline: Sal, or the 120 Days of Sodom (1975) Nazi-Fascist Northern Italy, 1943-44. He also opposed authority, and in many of his works he enjoyed mocking religion and authority by portraying priests, bishops, judges, and the like as sexual perverts and criminals. [34] The approval, however, was withdrawn three weeks after the film's Italian release in January 1976 and it was formally banned. The interiors were shot in Villa Sorra near Castelfranco Emilia. Also killed in the end. In the wake of the Lady Chatterleys Lover trial in 1960, a test case for the Obscene Publications Act passed a year before, more publishing houses were emboldened to publish Sade. . These outrageous acts and depraved passages of nauseating barbarity from 120 Days of Sodom involve amateur surgery without anesthetic, terminating babies, relations with corpses, and so much feces and forced intercourse you may become completely numb or puke your guts out. [25] Actress Hlne Surgre described the film shoot as "unusual", with nearly 40 actors being on set at any given time, and Pasolini shooting "enormous" amounts of footage. He is then raped by the President. But is this because words now seem safe, or because they are just too slippery for the law? . He is effeminate and enjoys receiving anal sex from men above any other sexual activity, although he also enjoys. it's also a masterpiece.The controversial poet, novelist, and filmmaker's transposition of the Marquis de Sade's 18th-century opus of torture and degradation to 1944 Fascist Italy remains one of the most passionately debated films of all time, a thought-provoking . The 120 Days of Sodom by Marquis de Sade relates the story of four wealthy men who enslave 24 mostly teenaged victims and sexually torture them while listening to stories told by old prostitutes. Claudio Cicchetti Confesses to the Bishop about Graziella's photograph, leading to a chain of revealed secrets. [citation needed]. Raped and killed at the end. Digital Circus Hosted by EdgeLordess. Antonio Orlando Killed after having his penis burned off by the President. Decades of legal wrangling ensued between the Nouailles and the Nordmanns, only resolved in 2014 when a private foundation acquired the scroll for 7m and placed it on display in Paris. [28] It also marked the reconciliation between the then 34-year-old Bertolucci and his old mentor after several disagreements following Pasolini's criticism of Last Tango in Paris (1972) and his failure to defend it from drastic censorship measures. The ceremony is interrupted when the Duke fondles several victims and sex workers. And within that cylinder was Sade's unfinished opus, 120 Days of Sodom, a sprawling monster of a novel described at best as a masterpiece of profane imagination and at worst as some of the . The film remains banned in several countries and sparked numerous debates among critics and censors about whether or not it constituted pornography due to its nudity and graphic depiction of sex acts. [31] The second showed all the actors, other than the four gentlemen, the director and his troupe perform a wild dance in a room of the villa furnished with red flags and the scene was filmed with the purpose of using it as a background scene during the credits, but was discarded because it appeared, in the eyes of Pasolini, chaotic and unsatisfactory. [2][6][5] In 2015, Lhritier was taken into police custody and charged with fraud for allegedly running his company as a Ponzi scheme. The revolution, by 1968, was impossible, as there was nobody left to fight it. Free UK p&p over 10, online orders only. These same anxieties resurfaced a few years later across the Channel, just when it looked as if Sade was beginning to gain a foothold in British culture. When one of the victims, Lamberto, refuses, the Magistrate whips him and tortures the President's daughter by tricking her into eating a slice of polenta containing nails. The move came just days before the manuscript was expected to be sold at auction. . The film is a loose adaptation of the 1785 novel (first published in 1904) The 120 Days of Sodom by the Marquis de Sade, updating the story's setting to the World War II era. At the end of the novel, de Sade draws up a list of the characters with a note of those who were killed and when, and also those who survived. All the Sade's strong beliefs about Atheism, Corruption of Catholic Church, Crime in All its . The judge disagreed, but his verdict was overturned on appeal, and a little over a decade later, Sades works were available in France in mass-market paperbacks. The majority of the community of people that see it either like it because it's fucked up or hate it because it's fucked up. Pupi Avati, being the writer, is not officially accredited due also to legal problems. There are also several cooks and female servants, those in the latter category later being dragged into the proceedings. De Sade despised religion; in the chateau of the 120 Days, toilet activities must be performed in the chapel. [12] The French Government were successful in this bid, with their purchase of it being announced in July, 2021. ysjkwygbq. [6], However, the long scroll of paper on which it was written was found hidden in the walls of his cell where Sade had left it, and removed by a citizen named Arnoux de Saint-Maximin two days before the storming. The remainder are very detailed summaries but no more. The daughters of the four principal characters, whom they have been sexually abusing for years. [6] Historians know little about Saint-Maximin or why he took the manuscript. Phone orders min p&p of 1.99. HereComesTheLuna 1 yr. ago. Inside the cylinder was a scroll, 12m long and 11cm wide, covered in minute handwriting: the manuscript of an unfinished novel called The 120 Days of Sodom, or The School of Libertinage. In this episode of Style is Substance, we take a look at Pier Paolo Pasolini's controversial film SAL, OR THE 120 DAYS OF SODOM (1975), and discuss how the film explores beauty and humanism. The book was written while Sade was imprisoned in the Bastille and the manuscript was lost during the storming of the Bastille. The Pianist and Signora Vaccari tell dark jokes to make the victims laugh. Like the other daughters is required to be completely naked for all 120 days. She is killed at the end. A large group of artists, including Martin Scorsese and Alec Baldwin, and scholars signed a legal brief arguing the film's artistic merit; the Ohio state court dismissed the case because the police violated the owners' Fourth Amendment rights, without reaching the question of whether the film was obscene. Enjoy Your Free Full HD Movies! Madame Duclos, 48, witty, and still fairly attractive and well-kept. However Pasolini saw the riots of the bourgeois students in 1968 as nihilistic acts of revolt, not revolution--a revolt of the Bourgeoise against itself, as his poetry makes clear. Though the translations published by the Olympia Press in Paris were banned from the UK throughout the 1950s, British publishers such as Peter Owen were able to produce (very careful) selections from Sades writings without running into trouble. [13] Pasolini noted his main contribution to Citti's original screenplay as being its "Dante-esque structure",[14] which Pasolini felt had been de Sade's original intention with the source material. One of the studs trips and rapes a daughter in front of the crowd, who laugh at her cries of pain. One of the boys tries to escape on the way, but is shot dead. It existed during de Sade's time, and it exists now. He knew that he was to be misunderstood by his Bourgeois audience, as it misunderstood itself, Pasolini said that it was intrinsic that Salo remain enigmatic (on the model of Dante), and this is the film's real genius. Is forced to remain completely naked at all times just like the other daughters. Pauvert argued that Sades works were medico-legal documents of great scientific value, and that his editions were in any case too expensive for ordinary members of the public to buy. Will McMorran is a lecturer at Queen Mary University of London. Two young soldiers, who had witnessed and collaborated in all the atrocities, dance a simple waltz together; one asks the name of the other's girlfriend back at home. "[17] Specifically, Pasolini intended to depict what he described as an "anarchy of power",[18] in which sex acts and physical abuse functioned as metaphor for the relationship between power and its subjects. Once at the mansion is forced to be naked at all times. Essential Bibliography: A new translation of Sade's most notorious, shocking, and influential novel. Georges Bataille points in his Literature and Evil: In the solitude of prison, Sade was the first man to give a rational expression to those uncontrollable desires, on the basis of which consciousness has based the social structure and the very image of man Indeed this book is the only one in which the mind of man is shown as it really is. [14] The first publisher of the work, Bloch, regarded its thorough categorisation of all manner of sexual fetishes as having "scientific importance to doctors, jurists, and anthropologists". The acts of torture in the courtyard caused some of the actors to suffer abrasions and burns. In a lost or deleted scene, during the final tortures, the Bishop sticks pins in her anus. [31] Another final scene, discovered years later and which was only in the initial draft of the script, showed, after the torture's end, the four gentlemen walk out of the house and drawing conclusions about the morality of the whole affair. Yet, like everything else, it has been appropriated by the bourgeoise, who misinterpret it first as Nietzsche, then as St. Paul, until it gets reduced to a merely absurdist Dada interpretation. [1] Described as both pornographic[2] and erotic,[3] its plot revolves around the activities of four wealthy libertine men who spend four months seeking out the ultimate sexual gratification through orgies, sealing themselves away in an inaccessible castle in the heart of the Black Forest in Germany with four madams and a harem of thirty-six victims, mostly male and female teenagers. Like, it's a hard movie to discuss. [7] An international legal wrangle ensued, with a French court ordering it to be returned to the Noailles family, only to be overruled in 1998 by a Swiss court that declared it had been bought by the collector in good faith. Seuil; in Italy SugarCo Edizioni); Philippe Sollers: 'L'criture et It is telling that the controversial section relating to extreme pornography in the Criminal Justice and Immigration Act 2009 deals only with images, and makes no mention of the written word. The story of the scroll, complete with Provenal noblemen, prison-breaks, and shadowy booksellers, reads rather like the life of the man who created it. In 1982, Grouet betrayed Natalie de Noailles' trust and smuggled the manuscript into Switzerland, where he sold it to Grard Nordmann for $60,000. After the wedding, the Bishop consummates the marriage and receives intense anal sex from his stud. Four wealthy libertines lock themselves in a castle, the Chteau de Silling, along with a number of victims and accomplices (the description of Silling matches de Sade's own castle, the Chteau de Lacoste). (RRP 12.99). Umberto Chessari First a victim but later recruited off-screen as a collaborator, and replaces Ezio after he is shot. A scene from Pier Paolo Pasolinis 1975 film of, the director of the foundation was charged with fraud, Jean-Jacques Pauvert the first publisher to put his own name to an edition of Sades major works. By the time Sade wrote The 120 Days he had spent eight years in prison, first in Vincennes then the Bastille. [71], In 2008, British opera director David McVicar and Swiss conductor Philippe Jordan produced a performance of the Richard Strauss opera Salome (1905) based on the film, setting it in a debauched palace in Nazi Germany, for the Royal Opera House in London, with Nadja Michael as Salome, Michaela Schuster as Herodias, Thomas Moser as Herod, Joseph Kaiser as Narraboth, and Michael Volle as Jokanaan. For each of the first four months, November to February, the prostitutes take turns to tell five stories each day, relating to the fetishes of their most interesting clients, and thus totaling 150 stories for each month (in theory at least; de Sade made a few mistakes, as he was apparently unable to go back and review his work as he went along). It was first screened at the Old Compton Street Cinema Club in Soho, London in 1977, in an uncut form and without certification from BBFC secretary James Ferman; the premises were raided by the Metropolitan Police after a few days. [40] In 1994, an undercover policeman in Cincinnati, Ohio, rented the film from a local gay bookstore and then arrested the owners for "pandering". His family held on to it for more than a 100 years before eventually selling it to a German collector, who allowed the pioneering sexologist Iwan Bloch to publish the novel for the first time in 1904. According to the Australian Classification Board media release, the DVD was passed due to "the inclusion of 176 minutes of additional material which provided a context to the feature film." Director Catherine Breillat and critic Joel David also voted for the film. The Masters are known only by their respective titles (Duke, Bishop, Magistrate, President), while the various youths are either unnamed or are referred to by their actors' real names. All have been kidnapped and chosen because of their beauty. Watchlist. 1976. His translation, with Thomas Wynn, of The 120 Days of Sodom is published by Penguin Classics. Sades once unpublishable novel has now joined the ranks of Penguins Classics for the first time, and its author will take his place alongside the great figures of world literature many of whom would no doubt turn in their graves at the news that their club now counted Sade among its members. Sign in to rate and Watchlist for personalized recommendations. Maurizio Valaguzza as Bruno, The Collaborator; teenager cruel like Claudio who befriends him. He is a cruel and perverted fascist, a lover of debauchery . ", protesting the destruction of The 120 Days of Sodom because of the light it sheds on humanity's darkest side when, in 1955, French authorities planned on destroying it and three other major works by Sade.[15]. The bourgeoise, Pasolini lamented, had subsumed everything into itself-there was no "other", only a technological god-like and all-inclusive power structure. [citation needed], The buttock inspection scene was referenced by Yves Tumor on their music video for "God Is a Circle" [76]. Liana Acquaviva Duke's elder daughter married with the Magistrate. In the final vignette of L'Age d'Or (1930), the surrealist film directed by Luis Buuel and written by Buuel and Salvador Dal, the intertitle narration tells of an orgy of 120 days of depraved acts a reference to The 120 Days of Sodom and tells us that the survivors of the orgy are ready to emerge. These early editions were published pseudonymously or anonymously in some cases in very small numbers for private and wealthy subscribers, and thus remained inaccessible to the general public.

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